Publications by Year: 2008

2008
Holtze, C. ; Rowat, A. C. ; Agresti, J. J. ; Hutchison, J. B. ; Angile, F. E. ; Schmitz, C. H. J. ; Koster, S. ; Duan, H. ; Humphry, K. J. ; Scanga, R. A. ; et al. Biocompatible surfactants for water-in-fluorocarbon emulsions. Lab on a Chip 2008, 8 1632-1639. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Drops of water-in-fluorocarbon emulsions have great potential for compartmentalizing both in vitro and in vivo biological systems; however, surfactants to stabilize such emulsions are scarce. Here we present a novel class of fluorosurfactants that we synthesize by coupling oligomeric perfluorinated polyethers (PFPE) with polyethyleneglycol (PEG). We demonstrate that these block copolymer surfactants stabilize water-in-fluorocarbon oil emulsions during all necessary steps of a drop-based experiment including drop formation, incubation, and reinjection into a second microfluidic device. Furthermore, we show that aqueous drops stabilized with these surfactants can be used for in vitro translation (IVT), as well as encapsulation and incubation of single cells. The compatability of this emulsion system with both biological systems and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic devices makes these surfactants ideal for a broad range of high-throughput, drop-based applications.
holtze2008.pdf
Gardel, M. L. ; Kasza, K. E. ; Brangwynne, C. P. ; Liu, J. ; Weitz, D. A. ; Correia, J. J. ; Detrich, H. W. Mechanical response of cytoskeletal networks. In Biophysical Tools for Biologists, Vol 2: In Vivo Techniques; Elsevier, 2008; Vol. 89, pp. 487-519. Publisher's VersionAbstract
The cellular cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of filamentous proteins, consisting of filamentous actin (F-actin), microtubules, and intermediate filaments. However, these networks are not simple linear, elastic solids; they can exhibit highly nonlinear elasticity and athermal dynamics driven by ATP-dependent processes. To build quantitative mechanical models describing complex cellular behaviors, it is necessary to understand the underlying physical principles that regulate force transmission and dynamics within these networks. In this chapter, we review our current understanding of the physics of networks of cytoskeletal proteins formed in vitro. We introduce rheology, the technique used to measure mechanical response. We discuss our current understanding of the mechanical response of F-actin networks, and how the biophysical properties of F-actin and actin cross-linking proteins can dramatically impact the network mechanical response. We discuss how incorporating dynamic and rigid microtubules into F-actin networks can affect the contours of growing microtubules and composite network rigidity. Finally, we discuss the mechanical behaviors of intermediate filaments.
gardel2008.pdf
Edd, J. F. ; Di Carlo, D. ; Humphry, K. J. ; Koster, S. ; Irimia, D. ; Weitz, D. A. ; Toner, M. Controlled encapsulation of single-cells into monodisperse picolitre drops. Lab on a Chip 2008, 8 1262-1264. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Encapsulation of cells within picolitre-size monodisperse drops provides new means to perform quantitative biological studies on a single-cell basis for large cell populations. Variability in the number of cells per drop due to stochastic cell loading is a major barrier to these techniques. We overcome this limitation by evenly spacing cells as they travel within a high aspect-ratio microchannel; cells enter the drop generator with the frequency of drop formation.
edd2008.pdf
Dickey, M. D. ; Chiechi, R. C. ; Larsen, R. J. ; Weiss, E. A. ; Weitz, D. A. ; Whitesides, G. M. Eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn): A liquid metal alloy for the formation of stable structures in microchannels at room temperature. Advanced Functional Materials 2008, 18, 1097-1104. Publisher's VersionAbstract
This paper describes the rheological behavior of the liquid metal eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn) as it is injected into microfluidic channels to form stable microstructures of liquid metal. EGaIn is well-suited for this application because of its theological properties at room temperature: it behaves like an elastic material until it experiences a critical surface stress, at which point it yields and flows readily. These properties allow EGaIn to fill microchannels rapidly when sufficient pressure is applied to the inlet of the channels, yet maintain structural stability within the channels once ambient pressure is restored. Experiments conducted in microfluidic channels, and in a parallel-plate rheometer, suggest that EGaIn's behavior is dictated by the properties of its surface (Predominantly gallium oxide, as determined by Auger measurements); these two experiments both yield approximately the same number for the critical surface stress required to induce EGaIn to flow (similar to 0.5 N/m). This analysis-which shows that the pressure that must be exceeded for EGaIn to flow through a microchannel is inversely proportional to the critical (i.e., smallest) dimension of the channel-is useful to guide future fabrication of microfluidic channels to mold EGaIn into functional microstructures.
dickey2008.pdf
Clausell-Tormos, J. ; Lieber, D. ; Baret, J. - C. ; El-Harrak, A. ; Miller, O. J. ; Frenz, L. ; Blouwolff, J. ; Humphry, K. J. ; Koster, S. ; Duan, H. ; et al. Droplet-based microfluidic platforms for the encapsulation and screening of mammalian cells and multicellular organisms. Chemistry & Biology 2008, 15, 427-437. Publisher's VersionAbstract
High-throughput, cell-based assays require small sample volumes to reduce assay costs and to allow for rapid sample manipulation. However, further miniaturization of conventional microtiter plate technology is problematic due to evaporation and capillary action. To overcome these limitations, we describe droplet-based microfluidic platforms in which cells are grown in aqueous microcompartments separated by an inert perfluorocarbon carrier oil. Synthesis of biocompatible surfactants and identification of gas-permeable storage systems allowed human cells, and even a Multicellular organism (C. elegans), to survive and proliferate within the microcompartments for several days. Microcompartments containing single cells could be reinjected into a microfluidic device after incubation to measure expression of a reporter gene. This should open the way for high-throughput, cell-based screening that can use >1000-fold smaller assay volumes and has similar to 500x higher throughput than conventional microtiter plate assays.
clausell-tormos2008.pdf
Cho, E. C. ; Kim, J. - W. ; Fernandez-Nieves, A. ; Weitz, D. A. Highly responsive hydrogel scaffolds formed by three-dimensional organization of microgel nanoparticles. Nano Letters 2008, 8 168-172. Publisher's VersionAbstract
We present a robust and straightforward method for fabricating remarkably responsive hydrogel scaffolds consisting of submicron-sized microgel particles. We demonstrate that the microgel particles assemble either through bridging or depletion interactions to yield a structure that swells or deswells at a macroscopic level in much shorter times as compared to a bulk polymer gel of similar characteristics. This approach offers a new way of fabricating functional hydrogel scaffolds with controllable responsiveness to applied stimuli and excellent loading capability for a wide variety of materials, irrespective of chemistry, size, and shape.
cho2008.pdf
Carroll, N. J. ; Rathod, S. B. ; Derbins, E. ; Mendez, S. ; Weitz, D. A. ; Petsev, D. N. Droplet-based microfluidics for emulsion and solvent evaporation synthesis of monodisperse mesoporous silica microspheres. Langmuir 2008, 24, 658-661. Publisher's VersionAbstract
A novel method for the fabrication of monodisperse mesoporous silica particles is suggested. It is based on the formation of well-defined equally sized emulsion droplets using a microfluidic approach. The droplets contain the silica precursor/surfactant solution and are suspended in hexadecane as the continuous oil phase. The solvent is then expelled from the droplets, leading to concentration and micellization of the surfactant. At the same time, the silica solidifies around the surfactant structures, forming equally sized mesoporous particles. The procedure can be tuned to produce well-separated particles or alternatively particles that are linked together. The latter allows us to create 2D or 3D structures with hierarchical porosity.
carroll2008.pdf
Brangwynne, C. P. ; Koenderink, G. H. ; MacKintosh, F. C. ; Weitz, D. A. Cytoplasmic diffusion: Molecular motors mix it up. Journal of Cell Biology 2008, 183, 583-587. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Random motion within the cytoplasm gives rise to molecular diffusion; this motion is essential to many biological processes. However, in addition to thermal Brownian motion, the cytoplasm also undergoes constant agitation caused by the activity of molecular motors and other nonequilibrium cellular processes. Here, we discuss recent work that suggests this activity can give rise to cytoplasmic motion that has the appearance of diffusion but is significantly enhanced in its magnitude and which can play an important biological role, particularly in cytoskeletal assembly.
brangwynne2008.pdf
Brangwynne, C. P. ; Koenderink, G. H. ; MacKintosh, F. C. ; Weitz, D. A. Nonequilibrium microtubule fluctuations in a model cytoskeleton. Physical Review Letters 2008, 100, 118104. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Biological activity gives rise to nonequilibrium fluctuations in the cytoplasm of cells; however, there are few methods to directly measure these fluctuations. Using a reconstituted actin cytoskeleton, we show that the bending dynamics of embedded microtubules can be used to probe local stress fluctuations. We add myosin motors that drive the network out of equilibrium, resulting in an increased amplitude and modified time dependence of microtubule bending fluctuations. We show that this behavior results from steplike forces on the order of 10 pN driven by collective motor dynamics.
brangwynne2008.pdf
Bendix, P. M. ; Koenderink, G. H. ; Cuvelier, D. ; Dogic, Z. ; Koeleman, B. N. ; Brieher, W. M. ; Field, C. M. ; Mahadevan, L. ; Weitz, D. A. A quantitative analysis of contractility in active cytoskeletal protein networks. Biophysical Journal 2008, 94, 3126-3136. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Cells actively produce contractile forces for a variety of processes including cytokinesis and motility. Contractility is known to rely on myosin II motors which convert chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis into forces on actin filaments. However, the basic physical principles of cell contractility remain poorly understood. We reconstitute contractility in a simplified model system of purified F-actin, muscle myosin II motors, and a-actinin cross-linkers. We show that contractility occurs above a threshold motor concentration and within a window of cross-linker concentrations. We also quantify the pore size of the bundled networks and find contractility to occur at a critical distance between the bundles. We propose a simple mechanism of contraction based on myosin filaments pulling neighboring bundles together into an aggregated structure. Observations of this reconstituted system in both bulk and low-dimensional geometries show that the contracting gels pull on and deform their surface with a contractile force of similar to 1 mu N, or similar to 100 pN per F-actin bundle. Cytoplasmic extracts contracting in identical environments show a similar behavior and dependence on myosin as the reconstituted system. Our results suggest that cellular contractility can be sensitively regulated by tuning the (local) activity of molecular motors and the cross-linker density and binding affinity.
bendix2008.pdf
Abate, A. R. ; Weitz, D. A. Single-layer membrane valves for elastomeric microfluidic devices. Applied Physics Letters 2008, 92, 243509. Publisher's VersionAbstract
We characterize single-layer membrane valves for elastomeric microfluidic devices. The devices are simple to fabricate using standard single-layer softlithography; moreover, they afford continuous control over flow rate. This combines the simplicity of stamped microfluidic devices with the precision control of membrane valves, which we demonstrate by steering objects in the flow using a simple device. (c) 2008 American Institute of Physics.
abate2008.pdf
Abate, A. R. ; Lee, D. ; Do, T. ; Holtze, C. ; Weitz, D. A. Glass coating for PDMS microfluidic channels by sol-gel methods. Lab on a Chip 2008, 8 516-518. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Soft lithography using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) allows one to fabricate complex microfluidic devices easily and at low cost. However, PDMS swells in the presence of many organic solvents significantly degrading the performance of the device. We present a method to coat PDMS channels with a glass-like layer using sol-gel chemistry. This coating greatly increases chemical resistance of the channels; moreover, it can be functionalized with a wide range of chemicals to precisely control interfacial properties. This method combines the ease of fabrication afforded by soft-lithography with the precision control and chemical robustness afforded by glass.
abate2008.pdf
Abate, A. R. ; Krummel, A. T. ; Lee, D. ; Marquez, M. ; Holtze, C. ; Weitz, D. A. Photoreactive coating for high-contrast spatial patterning of microfluidic device wettability. Lab on a Chip 2008, 8 2157-2160. Publisher's VersionAbstract
For many applications in microfluidics, the wettability of the devices must be spatially controlled. We introduce a photoreactive sol-gel coating that enables high-contrast spatial patterning of microfluidic device wettability.
abate2008.pdf

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